Notes on Bidirectional Typing and the Meaning of Horizontal Lines

type var = string
type typ = Unit | Arr of typ * typ
type expr = Var of var | Lam of var * expr |
App of (expr * expr) | TT | Annot of (expr * typ)
type typ_ctx = (var * typ) list

let rec type_check gamma e t = match e,t with
(* | Var v, t -> (List.assoc v gamma) = t *)
| TT , Unit -> true
| Lam(x,e), Arr(a1,a2) -> type_check ((x,a1) :: gamma) e a2
| _,  _  -> let t' = type_infer gamma e in
t = t'
and type_infer gamma e = match e with
| Var v -> List.assoc v gamma
| Annot(e, t) -> let c = type_check gamma e t in
if c then t else failwith "Bad annotation"
| App(f, x) -> let Arr (a,b) = type_infer gamma f in
let c = type_check gamma x a in
if c then b else failwith "App typecheck failed"
| _ -> failwith "can't infer"

(* #use bidi.ml;;
type_check [] TT Unit;;
type_infer [] (Annot (Lam ("x", App(Var "x", TT)), Arr(Arr(Unit,Unit),Unit)));;
type_infer [] (Annot (Lam ("x", TT), Arr(Unit,Unit)));;
*)



% It works but it is not well moded

type(G, var(X), A) :- member( X - A  , G ). % member is a little wrong.
type(G, ann( E, T), T) :- type(G, ann(E,T), T).
type(G, tt, unit).
type(G, lam(X,E), arr(A1,A2)) :- type([X - A1 | G], E, A2 ).
type(G, app(E1,E2), B) :- type(G, E1, arr(A,B)), type(G, E2, A).

%?- type([], lam(x,lam(y,var(y))), T).
%T = arr(_6662, arr(_6680, _6680))


Require Import String.
Inductive type :=
| unit
| arr : type -> type -> type
.
Inductive expr :=
| var : string -> expr
| lam : string -> expr -> expr
| ap : expr -> expr -> expr
| tt : expr
| ann : expr -> type -> expr.

Fixpoint type_eq a b :=
match a,b with
| unit, unit => true
| (arr x y), (arr z w) => andb (type_eq x z) ( type_eq y w)
| _, _ => false
end.

Definition ctx := list (string * type).
Require Import List.
Import ListNotations.

Search app.

Fixpoint lookup k l := match l with
| (t,v) :: ls => if String.eqb k t then v else lookup k ls
| [] => unit (* chris mocked me for this *)
end.
Inductive hastype (gamma : ctx) : expr -> type -> Type :=
| Var : forall x A, lookup x gamma = A -> hastype gamma (var x) A
| UnitI : hastype gamma tt unit
| ArrI :  forall e x A1 A2, hastype ((x, A1) :: gamma) e A2 ->
hastype gamma (lam x e) (arr A1 A2)
| ArrE :  forall A B e2 e1,
hastype gamma e1 (arr A B) ->
hastype gamma e2 A ->
hastype gamma (ap e1 e2) B
| Anno : forall a b e,
hastype gamma e a ->
type_eq a b = true ->
hastype gamma (ann e a) b
.

Inductive inferstype (g : ctx) : expr -> type -> Type :=
| Varinf : forall x A, lookup x g = A -> inferstype g (var x) A
| ArrEInf :  forall A B e2 e1,
inferstype g e1 (arr A B) ->
checkstype g e2 A ->
inferstype g (ap e1 e2) B
| AnoInf : forall a e, checkstype g e a ->
inferstype g (ann e a) a

with checkstype (g : ctx) : expr -> type -> Type :=
| UnitIc : checkstype g tt unit
| ArrIc :  forall e x A1 A2, checkstype ((x, A1) :: g) e A2 ->
checkstype g (lam x e) (arr A1 A2)
| Subc : forall A e B, inferstype g e A -> type_eq A B = true -> checkstype g e B
.

Goal checkstype [] tt unit. eauto using checkstype. Qed.
Goal hastype [] tt unit. eauto using hastype. Qed.
Goal {t & hastype [] tt t}. eauto using hastype. Qed.
Goal checkstype [] (lam "x" tt) (arr unit unit).
eauto using checkstype. Qed.
Goal hastype [] (lam "x" tt) (arr unit unit).
eauto using hastype. Qed.
Goal hastype [] (ap (lam "x" tt) tt) unit.
eauto using hastype. Qed.
Goal inferstype [] (ap
(lam "x" tt)
tt) unit.
eauto using inferstype, checkstype. Abort.

Goal inferstype [] (ap
(ann (lam "x" tt) (arr unit unit))
tt) unit.
eauto using inferstype, checkstype. Qed.
(* eapply ArrEInf.
- eapply AnoInf.
apply ArrIc. apply UnitIc.
- apply UnitIc.
Qed. *)

(* Decision procedures.

Fixpoint inferstype (g:ctx) (e : expr) : option {t : type | inferstype g e t} :=
Fixpoint checkstype (g:ctx) (e : expr) (t : type) : option (checkstype g e t) :=

sound : checkstype -> hastype
complete : hastype -> checkstype \/ inferstype
*)

From elpi Require Import elpi.



I picked bidirectional typechecking for reading group this week. A lovely survey paper.

Bidirectional typing is a methodology for taking piles of typing rules and making them more algorithmic. This gets into my strike zone, as an outsider to type theory and logic, the notion of inference rules bends me in knots. I don’t know what they mean. I do have some notion of computer programs having meaning. C, python, C++, ocaml, even Coq mean something to me because they create artifacts that exist and live outside of myself. They run. Their execution becomes fact regardless if I understand them or not. Executable programs become a part of the physical world. I do not feel the same about mathematics or computer science written down in papers. It is static and only moves in the minds of people. I do not feel compelled to consider what is written in a paper as fact, a fait accompli, if I do not personally understand it. I don’t think many people are trying to willfully deceive me in the academic literature, but there is always the possibility and that of self deception.

So for me, a pile of cryptic symbols with horizontal lines is unacceptable and contains almost no meaning. It begins to have meaning when I know how to translate the concepts into an executable programming language.

These concepts also being to have meaning if I personally know how to manipulate them with paper and pencil.

To put symbolic mathematical stuff in a computer, a standard methodology is to consider expressions as trees. We then want to manipulate those trees in programs or produce new trees.

Something that gives me conniptions is that implication $\rimpl$, turnstile $\vdash$, And horizontal bars are all some kind of notion of logic implication, albeit with the subtlest conceptual and mechanical distinctions. Somehow it the interplay of pushing things around between these three similar things encapsulates a notion of logical deduction. Super bizarre.

B is mangetic field, Gamma is a context

What are types?

Checking is easy? Inference is hard?

Is this always true? Checking of application is hard f x : b because it needs to invent an inner type.

We can make checking always go through with intense annotations.

infertype below the line is good. It is producing information infertype above the line is bad. It needs a information producing process to output

It almost feels like a constraint satisfaction problem to me. Perhaps the more flexible notion of a prolog search with pruning.

We want to pick an ordering and infer/check for the rules such that they are well moded. We want as many infers below lines and checks above lines as possible. These may be weighted by some notion of painfulness of annotation. Freqeuncy of usage * annotation size perhaps. To require a synethsizing derivation is bad. To produce a synthesizing derivation is good.

The Pfenning recipe is a heuristic

Well moded : premise known.

The rules aren’t independent of each other though? How does that hjapen? Yes. The rules need to match up to each other. Maybe really the cost is every annotation. which happens when there is a form that infers up top but checks below the line.

Of course, a language designer is not constrained to a fixed system. Adding extra forms,, or interesintg new contexts or ways of thinkgin about things.

elimination forms are often in inference because there is an invented type

type-directed synthesis of programs is proof search.

1. principal judgement
2. elimination synethesize, introduction check. Elimination is usually above and introuducion usually below. This is counterintuitive, we have to step backward to step forward. WWe don’t want synthesis above and check below.

A pile of introductions should just check? Carry the top level information through

subtyping :< often has input mode. It’s easy to tell if things are subtypes than to come up with a maximal type persay

We don’t want to dump information

The simply typed lambda calculus is kind of a bad example. It is so simple that really the nonbidirectional version does a pretty dang good job in raw prolog.

Inference rules: What is their computational reading/encoding? The notation is extremely vague if this is your desire.

1. The expression below the line defines a relation.

Relations may be represented different ways R a b c Am I mixing types and expressions

1. [(a, b, c)] - explicit list (possibly infinite)
2. a -> b -> c -> bool (decidable or partial depending on language) indicator function
3. Halfsies. a -> [(b,c)], a -> b -> [c], in this sense a -> b -> c -> bool is really a -> b -> c -> [()]
4. type Rel a b c = a -> b -> c -> Prop – a formula
5.  explicit data type. data Rel = True False And (Rel) (Rel) Or
6. R(A,B,C). – prolog
7. C C++, Java, Python? Do they give any new ideas?

Ok but what about Rules. Different but related question.

1. Prolog clause. Problems
2. Coq Inductive data type
3. Cases in recursive function definitions
4. a pile of switch cases or whatever
5. Tactics - th below -> ( [ th above ], [Pf above] -> Pf below )
6. LCF Recognizers - typ rule = [Pf up top] -> theore below -> Pf below - sometimes yuou need to give the shape of the thing you want below. Even all the above parts and the label of the rule might be insufficient. It is possible for this function to be partial / undecidable. Proof terms are a deep DSL recording these shallow moves.
7. You could make an argument for an inference rule being a relation of relations? A meta lifting.
8. rules with single things up top = executions of abstract machines

Inference rules are relations on syntactic forms?

This notion of modes is essentially the “Halfsies” notion. Bidirectional typechecking defines the relation not between

A typing judgement is a relation between contexts, expressions, and types. Expressions have types. Values have types. These are distinct notions. Value as a meta notion vs Value as a subclass of expressions.

(tenv, expr, typ ) -> true (tenv, expr) -> Maybe typ

type var = string type expr = Var of var | Lam of var * expr | App of (expr * expr) | TT | Annot of (expr * typ) type typ = Unit | Arr of typ * typ type typ_ctx = (var * typ) list

type_check gamma = function | Var v, | TT , Unit -> true | e, t -> let t’ = type_infer gamma e in t = t’ and type_infer gamma = function | Var v -> lookup gamma v | Annot e t -> let c = type_check gamma e t in if c then t else failwith “Bad annotation” | App f x -> let Arr (a,b) = infer_type gamma f in let c = type_check gamma x a in if c then b else fail | _ -> failwith

Does it matter that we should return errors? I guess it does.

type_judge(Gamma, e, type). type_judge(Gamma, tt, unit). type_judge(Gamma, lam(V,Body) , arr(A,B)) :- type_judge([ V -> A | Gamma], Body , B ). type_judge(Gamma, app(F,X) , ) :-

mckinna mcbride gundry. tye inferencei n context https://adam.gundry.co.uk/pub/type-inference-in-context/#:~:text=We%20consider%20the%20problems%20of,for%20implementing%20type%20inference%20algorithms.

Complete and easy https://arxiv.org/pdf/1306.6032.pdf

FreezeML https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/142279783/FreezeML_EMRICH_DOA21022020_AFV.pdf

Nice simple tutorial http://davidchristiansen.dk/tutorials/bidirectional.pdf

pfenning lecture notes https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~fp/courses/15312-f04/handouts/15-bidirectional.pdf

He mentioned thaty a computational interpretation of inference rules requirtes modes Symntax directed rules can be considered as checkers, since we can pattern match on the syntax and know what to do

What interesting problem can I use? Well, interleaved moded predicates is interesting.

Mode correctness - not a notion of bidirectional type checking.

This is an interesting idea. Take a prolog program that is ill formed. Consider all possible modal forms. In recursiove calls, consider all possible modes to recrusviely call. Consider all orderings of right side preds too. This is all mechanical enough it could be considered mode synthesis. Perhaps + some test cases

rel(A,B) :- rel(A,C), rel(C,B).

rel+-(-A,+B) :- rel–, rel–

Trim all non well moded

Maybe I hsould use mercury? Or swipl has a mode chekcing thing probably? https://www.swi-prolog.org/pldoc/man?section=modes

The fool.

It has something to do with focusing? Hmm The review paper says explicitly it does not.

https://twitter.com/rob_rix/status/1379966266723680256?s=20 rob rix dicssuion polarity sterling says look at sequent. negative have noninvertible left rules, positive has noninvertible right Substructural logic (like linear) What about bunched logic like seperation? Does that add any clairty? What is the polarity of seperating conjunction?

https://github.com/jonsterling/dreamtt “pedagogical” binrectional dependent tpye implentation

https://astampoulis.github.io/blog/taksim-modes-makam/ - huh makam has modes inspired by the bidi survey

http://noamz.org/thesis.pdf

https://consequently.org/papers/dggl.pdf

https://personal.cis.strath.ac.uk/neil.ghani/papers/ghani-jfcs09.pdf

Positive and negative types

Focusing

The two G and D categories in Harrop/Horn formula

Positivityv checking

Covaraince and contravaraince

hmm. Harper seems to suggest a positive v neagtive product type is a lazy vs strict distinction https://ncatlab.org/nlab/show/product+type -

https://ncatlab.org/nlab/show/sum+type - need multiple sequents for

Linear logic.

Positive is “charactersize “ by introductions. Plays nice with eager evaluation Negative is “characterized” by eliminations. Plays “nice” with lazy evaluation

Introduction rules, elimination rules AND computation rules?

Proof search vs Preoof normalization semantics.

focussing and prolog

hmm harper actually has a chapter on classical logic dynamics

Bidrectional typing Type synthesis can be interleaved with type checking

Session types to understand linear logic vs memory management Types are things that can be attached to terms. Terms are expressions Process calculi are some kind of terms. https://homepages.inf.ed.ac.uk/wadler/papers/propositions-as-sessions/propositions-as-sessions.pdf